Angelaki, C., & Mavroidis, I. (2013). Communication and social presence: The impact on adult learners' emotions in distance learning. The European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 16 (1), 78-93.
Ausburn, L. (2004). Gender and learning strategy differences in non-traditional adult students’ design preferences in hybrid distance courses. Journal of interactive online learning, 3(2), 1-17.
Delialioglu, O., Cakir, H., Bichelmeyer, B. A., Dennis, A. R., & Duffy, T. M. (2010). Factors impacting adult learner achievement in a technology certificate program on computer networks. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(2), 97-107.
Dumais, S. A., Rizzuto, T. E., Cleary, J., & Dowden, L. (2013). Stressors and supports for adult online learners: Comparing first-and continuing-generation college students. American Journal of Distance Education, 27(2), 100-110.
Dzakiria, H. (2012). Illuminating the importance of learning interaction to open distance learning (ODL) success: A qualitative perspectives of adult learners in Perlis, Malaysia. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 15 (2).
Hagan, E. (2013). How adult online graduates portray their degree. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 16(2).
Harsh, O. K., & Sohail, M. S. (2002). Role of delivery, course design and teacher-student interaction: Observations of adult distance education and traditional on-campus education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 3(2).
Henry, L. (2011). Internal and external factors that influence adult learners in an online setting. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 8(5), 49-56.
Ke, F. (2010). Examining online teaching, cognitive, and social presence for adult students. Computers & Education, 55(2), 808-820.
Ke, F., & Xie, K. (2009). Toward deep learning for adult students in online courses. The Internet and Higher Education, 12(3), 136-145.
Lai, H. J. (2011). The influence of adult learners' self-directed learning readiness and network literacy on online learning effectiveness: A study of civil servants in taiwan. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 14(2), 98-106.
Park, J. H., & Choi, H. J. (2009). Factors influencing adult learners' decision to drop out or persist in online learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 207-217.
Pike, A., & Adams, A. (2012). Digital exclusion or learning exclusion? An ethnographic study of adult male distance learners in English prisons. Research in Learning Technology, 20(4), 363-376.
Rakap, S. (2010). Impacts of learning styles and computer skills on adult students' learning online. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(2), 108-115.
Remedios, R., & Richardson, J. T. (2013). Achievement goals and approaches to studying: evidence from adult learners in distance education. Distance Education, 34(3), 271-289.
- This study set out to investigate the emotional responses of adult learners to various aspects of their online educational experience. Between 2010 and 2011, 108 undergraduate and postgraduate students filled out a questionnaire about their emotional responses to certain aspects of the online courses they took at the Hellenic Open University. The authors found that both positive and negative emotions were quite common in the participants, and often lead them to contact their instructors and peers. Although students often felt reluctant to initiate contact with their instructor, they felt better after doing so; this contact tended to have a positive impact on students' emotions. The age of the students did not affect the perceived importance of social presence and communication, showing that these factors are just as important to adult students as they are to traditional learners. These findings show that instructors need to encourage open communication and show a strong social presence in order to promote the best learning environment for their adult students in distance courses.
Ausburn, L. (2004). Gender and learning strategy differences in non-traditional adult students’ design preferences in hybrid distance courses. Journal of interactive online learning, 3(2), 1-17.
- The purpose of this study was to determine what course features in a hybrid learning environment are most important to adult learners, with an emphasis on differences by gender and by preferred learning strategy. The author administered a research questionnaire and a learning strategies instrument to 67 adult learners enrolled in hybrid online-offline courses taught by the author. All participants across the board expressed value for having options, self-direction, frequent communication from the instructor, and feeling engaged in a community of learners. The female participants expressed greater preference for aspects of the course that promote social relationships; male participants preferred those which gave an opportunity to expand their technology skills. Preferences varied broadly across different learning strategy groups, indicating that one-size-fits all approaches do not meet all students' needs. The results of this study imply that institutions need to be aware that adult learners want a high degree of flexibility and personalization in their online education and that instructors need to be aware of the diversity of needs and preferences among their adult students.
Delialioglu, O., Cakir, H., Bichelmeyer, B. A., Dennis, A. R., & Duffy, T. M. (2010). Factors impacting adult learner achievement in a technology certificate program on computer networks. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(2), 97-107.
- The purpose of this study was to identify personal and institutional factors that affected adult learner's outcomes in an online non-degree educational program. The authors analyzed 2442 program evaluation surveys, conducted during 2004-2005, where the respondents were over age 18 and enrolled for non-degree education. The findings indicated that being male and employed full-time increased student performance in the program. Contrary to some expectations, those over age 36 performed better than younger adults. Other factors, such as the nature of the institution attended and the socio-economic status of the neighbourhood the participants inhabited, had no significant impact on student outcomes. The findings indicated that instructors and instructional designers need to find ways to better support female participants in order to help close the gender performance gap. The result that students who work full-time outperformed those who work part-time or not at all contradicted earlier research and could not be explained by the studies' authors. The authors called for further research into this result, so that adult learners, who frequently work full-time, can be better served by their institutions.
Dumais, S. A., Rizzuto, T. E., Cleary, J., & Dowden, L. (2013). Stressors and supports for adult online learners: Comparing first-and continuing-generation college students. American Journal of Distance Education, 27(2), 100-110.
- The authors' purpose was to investigate what motivation and support factors impact adult online learners, with an emphasis on the differences between first- and continuing-generation students. The study used a survey of 308 students from the Center for Adult Learning in Louisiana, with follow-up phone interviews of 30 respondents; all participants were adults engaged in continuing education. Findings of the study indicated that first- and continuing-generation learners were very similar in their motivations for taking courses as adults, in their confidence levels, and in their preference for personalized guidance in their courses. However, first-generation students were more likely to face challenges from demanding work environments, experienced higher rates of reported problems with teachers, and made less use of institutional support resources. The results impled that instructors and institutions need to be aware of potential differences between first- and continuing-generation adult students, and may need to tailor their approach to offering student support to encourage first-generation learners to take advantage of them. The authors determined that further research was needed to understand the restraints which demanding work environments place on first-generation adult students.
Dzakiria, H. (2012). Illuminating the importance of learning interaction to open distance learning (ODL) success: A qualitative perspectives of adult learners in Perlis, Malaysia. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 15 (2).
- The purpose of this study was to investigate the importance, from the students' subjective point of view, of learner interaction in an online open learning environment. The author located eight Malaysian adults engaged in Open Distance Learning (ODL) through a variety of institutions, and gave them in-depth one-on-one interviews, along with follow-up questions. The analysis of the qualitative data yielded results on the triad of learner-learner, learner-tutor, and learner-interface interaction. Students who actively participated and interacted more had more positive learning experiences than those who did not. Those who perceived a high degree of interaction with their tutor, especially in the form of prompt feedback, felt they had better learning outcomes. The findings implied that instructors and institutions need to be aware of frustrations that can arise from insufficient interaction, and to find ways to encourage interaction in new ways in the context of online education. Open learning has been touted as a solution for adult learners who cannot fit the restrictions of typical courses into their busy schedules, but without the necessary interaction, the expected benefits may never arrive.
Hagan, E. (2013). How adult online graduates portray their degree. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 16(2).
- This study aimed to qualitatively explore the strategies that adult online learners used to explain-- and defend against perceived criticism--the online aspect of their bachelor's degree. The author interviewed 24 graduates of online programs at a private research university who had earned their degrees as adult learners, using a case study approach. Nearly half the participants expressed concern about stigma attached to an online degree. They reported various methods of combating this stigma, including mentioning the prestige of the institution they attended, and concealing the online nature of their studies unless asked. The remainder of the participants did not feel any stigma about an online degree, and in fact, often expressed pride at the nature of their studies, revealing that they feel an online program is more difficult and requires more discipline than an in-person course of study. The author states that universities can offer value to their online students by pursuing strategies to help enhance the prestige of their online programs, which is vital for adult learners who often pursue a degree with explicit career-value goals in mind.
Harsh, O. K., & Sohail, M. S. (2002). Role of delivery, course design and teacher-student interaction: Observations of adult distance education and traditional on-campus education. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 3(2).
- This study sought to identify factors that contribute to success for adult online learners, especially with regard to delivery, instructional design and instructor interaction. The authors selected fifteen adult students from a Malaysian university, and placed them in three groups: traditional classroom learners, young adult online learners (age 20-22), and mature adult online learners (age 35+). They then delivered a short course on web design and instructed all three groups to complete a web design project, then interviewed the students on their experiences. The two distance-education groups performed significantly worse than the in-person learners on the assigned project. The distance students reported they felt less confident in their studies, although the older cohort had more confidence than the younger. The older learners also initiated much more student-student interaction, in contrast to the assertions often made in the literature that adult learners are more independent than traditional ones. The authors recommend that instructors encourage student-student communication, particularly between distance and in-person learners, as they feel this could benefit both groups and enhance the adult learner experience.
Henry, L. (2011). Internal and external factors that influence adult learners in an online setting. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 8(5), 49-56.
- The purpose of this study was to determine what factors had the most influence on adult online learners' course completion rate. The author administered a survey to a group of 15 adult post-graduate students who were then enrolled in an online program at a southeastern US university. The study was descriptive in nature and asked the participants to rate the importance of factors in motivating them in their studies. The author found that motivations categorized as internal (personal goals, sense of accomplishment, etc.) were ranked more highly by students than those considered external (instructor feedback, help from online tutors) in motivating the participants to complete their coursework. Overall, this study adds to the body of research showing the importance of internal motivations for online adult learners, which are generally believed to be of more importance than they are for traditional-age students. This indicates that students need to consider their own motivations before beginning an online course of study, and that institutions may benefit from prompting learners to do so.
Ke, F. (2010). Examining online teaching, cognitive, and social presence for adult students. Computers & Education, 55(2), 808-820.
- This study's purpose was to examine adult students' various forms of presence in online courses. The author used a mixed-methods case study approach to examine 173 adult online learners in a US research university, engaged in ten different online courses. Surveys, interviews, and an examination of online discussion messages made up the main sources of data. The study found that adult learners tend to participate in online discussions in a parallel, non-interactive, and superficial manner, which fails to create a community of learners. There was a negative correlation between the grade weight of online discussions and amount of knowledge-constructive activity that the students engaged in, which indicates that the more highly graded the discussions are, the more shallow they become. Despite the perception of adult students being geared toward independent and self-driven learning, the author found that high cognitive and social presence from the instructor was vital to student-reported satisfaction in these courses. The findings indicate that instructors need to be aware of adult students' needs when designing a course environment, particularly with regard to online discussions.
Ke, F., & Xie, K. (2009). Toward deep learning for adult students in online courses. The Internet and Higher Education, 12(3), 136-145.
- The purpose of this study was to examine the factors that lead to knowledge-constructive (deep) learning in adult students taking online courses. 51 students from ten different online courses at a US research university participated in the study. The authors analyzed transcripts of the students' online interaction and administered end-of-semester surveys to the participants. The authors found that older learners were more likely to report deep learning as their primary approach, but that analysis of their online interactions showed that shallow surface-level learning predominated. The authors hypothesize that deep learning may be taking place offline, and not be reflected in the online discussions. They also found that the course design most likely to promote deep learning for adults is one of well-defined structure, with a high degree of interactivity and open-ended discussion. Instructors in online courses should be aware of the need for interactivity and open-ended discussion when designing their online courses. The authors state that further research is needed in the area of course design specifically to address the needs of adult learners.
Lai, H. J. (2011). The influence of adult learners' self-directed learning readiness and network literacy on online learning effectiveness: A study of civil servants in taiwan. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 14(2), 98-106.
- This study aimed to examine the impact of adult learners' technology fluency and their capacity for self-direction on their performance in an online learning environment. A survey was completed by 238 adult learners engaged in an online education course in Taiwan, measuring their Self-Directed Learning Readiness (SDLR), network literacy, and online learning effectiveness. The participant's age correlated positively with enjoyment of learning and with time dedicated to learning. There was no correlation between age and network literacy, showing that older adults were as technologically prepared as their younger counterparts. Online discussion was negatively rated by the participants, who did not highly value peer interaction in these courses, perhaps because it was not graded. The SDLR score of the participants was critical in determining their successful educational outcomes. Adult learners are considered to be more self-directed than younger students, but this study found this was not a uniform characteristic. Instructors and instructional designers should be aware of this in designing their courses; they should look for ways to promote self-directed learning in their students.
Park, J. H., & Choi, H. J. (2009). Factors influencing adult learners' decision to drop out or persist in online learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 207-217.
- The purpose of this study was to determine what factors (demographic, external, internal) affected adult learners' likelihood of completing an online course, as opposed to dropping out. 147 adult non-traditional students who had taken one of the job-related online courses offered at a large US university completed a survey given by the authors. The results showed that family and organizational support, as well as their perception of the relevance of their studies were factors that significantly predicted learners' persistence in their course. Lacking support and the feeling of relevance made it more likely that students would drop out. The authors recommend that adult learners should be given consideration by their employers of the time requirements to complete an online course, and that learning institutions need to find ways to offer support to these students. Instructors and instructional designers need to find ways to ensure that the materials in their courses are relevant to the lives and jobs of adult learners to increase their engagement in and likelihood of course completion.
Pike, A., & Adams, A. (2012). Digital exclusion or learning exclusion? An ethnographic study of adult male distance learners in English prisons. Research in Learning Technology, 20(4), 363-376.
- The purpose of this study was to examine the participants in adult online learning programs for the incarcerated to determine whether they are truly inclusive. Adult learning includes any number of non-traditional student populations, including those incarcerated. The authors conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with ten students and six staff members from three all-male prisons who were involved in student-inmate online education. The participants report that they value their education as a cornerstone of their identity and a way to re-shape their lives. The students viewed technology as a lifeline to achieve education under their circumstances. However, in some prisons, the authors found that technology-facilitated learning and technology overall were seen as diversions, whereas prison work was valued as a worthwhile endeavour. This lead to conflicts and difficulties for students in those prisons who wanted to continue pursuing their education. The authors recommended that a culture shift was needed on the part of prison staff and policy makers to allow education to be central to student-inmates lives, rather than dismissed as entertainment.
Rakap, S. (2010). Impacts of learning styles and computer skills on adult students' learning online. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(2), 108-115.
- The purpose of this study was to investigate what factors affected adult learners' knowledge acquisition in online courses, particularly with regard to their prior knowledge, skills, and learning style. 46 adult students who were engaged in a particular online course completed two surveys and a questionnaire. In addition, the author examined the students' performance on course quizzes to determine learning outcomes. Students who had a preference for a reading/writing learning style had significantly better outcomes in the course than students who preferred aural, visual, or kinesthetic learning. The author also found a moderate positive correlation between reported computer skill level and course success. Learning styles have been explored in traditional student learning, but have been under-investigated in adult learning. These findings show that instructors need to be aware of different learning styles when conducting adult online courses. Instructors can use methods like videos and web conferencing to accommodate students with different learning styles, and should consider alternate methods of evaluation such as portfolios and group assignments.
Remedios, R., & Richardson, J. T. (2013). Achievement goals and approaches to studying: evidence from adult learners in distance education. Distance Education, 34(3), 271-289.
- The authors of this study set out to find whether achievement goals had the same impact on adult distance learning outcomes as they are known to have on child and young adult outcomes, and whether differences in approaches to studying would make any difference. 1211 adult students studying at the Open University in the UK completed a survey about their coursework. The authors also examined the students' course completion and academic outcomes. They found that older adults, as compared with traditional-age students in a different study, were more likely to frame their studies in terms of mastery goals, thus indicating that they had stronger intrinsic motivations. The results also showed that students who adopted mastery goals (as opposed to performance goals) were more likely to exhibit deep learning. Instructors should be aware, however, that older learners were also motivated by performance goals (in addition to mastery goals), just like younger students, and so should have opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. The authors suggest that instructors can promote better outcomes by identifying the goals motivating their students, and tailoring their approach based on that information.